The article focuses on the Philosophy of Freedom of the Swiss philosopher Charles Secrétan (1815-1895) and on the attempt to reconcile freedom as the fundamental experience for the human being with the alleged necessitarianism that would result from the positive sciences. The notion of “fall” as it is found in the Christian tradition allows Secrétan to rediscover an original dimension from which we can conceive the laws of nature as contingent. It is space and time that impose (...) their constraints and lead to the mismatch between the different faculties (sensitivity, imagination, intelligence, will) that is constitutive for the human experience and that prevents us from “being at any moment the whole of ourselves”. A peculiarity of Secrétan’s conception of space is that he does not see it as a condition for the numerical plurality of human beings. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS 77 as indicated, makes a highly convincing case, if not for his thesis, at least for his approach. We need more such research. The history of philosophy must be more than the history of philosophies. But is a method which excludes subjective elements and treats ideologies only in function of material factors really total? Refusing to admit the "idealistic" notion of a kind of freedom, of (...) human self-possession, independent not of history (of which it is a part) but of historical determinism, the materialist is driven into rationalizations as baroque as those of the idealist he fights. The substantial uses of the materialist approach, which S~ve makes clear, have been too much ignored; and ideological interpretations tend, as he says, to confuse issues too uncomfortable to face. But materialism too has its ideological confusions which cannot be discerned by autocriticism alone. For who is to see whether the tree continues to be when there's no one about in the quad? EUGEN WEBER University of California, Los Angeles THE PHILOSOPHYOF CHARLES SECRETAN 1815.1895 The philosophy of Seer&an is still important. It best illustrates the nature of the thought of Romanic French-speaking Switzerland in its perpetual attempt to keep up-to-date and to combine science (as exact knowledge) with religion (that is, Christianity). To this day Romanic Swiss thought is a strange mixture of science, speculation, civics, democracy, pedagogics, and traditional Christianity. We find all these elements in Charles Secr6tan, but his thought is also important when taken by itself. Moreover, it illustrates what some scholars call the spiritual greatness of the nineteenth century. Charles Secr6tan was born in 1815 at Lausanne. As a child he was precocious. At the age of four he read short stories fluently. In his youth he was fond of books and had a vivid sense of the beauty of nature. His father was a magistrate tending to Voltairian skepticism. His mother was a devout woman but very reserved and of few words. Charles studied law at the Academy (University) of his city. He came to accept the political liberalism of that day but also underwent the influence of the current religious Rdveil. This was an individualistic awakening of personal Christianity in opposition to the dead orthodoxy and church-conformity of the previous century. In other words, Secrdtan came to believe that adherence to a religion should involve something personally felt, rather than a mere following of the mores of the community. Between 1835 and 1840, he spent some semesters in Munich, studying under Schelling. Later he was to insist upon the originality of his philosophy and its independence of that of his early teacher. In 1837, Seer&an founded the Swiss Review. The next year he was called to teach 78 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY Philosophy at the Lausanne Academy. He was suspended by the radical revolution (a sort of demagogery) of 1845. In 1850 he was called to Neuch~ttel and in 1866 recalled to Lausanne where he died in 1895--exactly eighty years old. In the Lausanne Academy, Secr6tan had as a colleague his old friend Alexander Vinet (1797-1847). He found in Vinet a religious force which uplifted his spirit. Vinet was a literary critic, a poet and a professor of the art of preaching, while Secr6tan was a philosopher. Yet Secr6tan owed to Vinet the conviction that no religious doctrine is worthy of acceptance unless it possesses a moral value in itself and in relation to man. The philosophical career of Secr6tan is characterized by three distinct stages (metaphysical, ethical, and sociological) each of which finds expression in an important work: La Philosophie de la Libertd (1849), Le Principe de la Morale (1883), and La Civilisation et la Croyance (1887). We shall therefore consider most briefly Secr~tan's metaphysics, ethics, and sociology. Metaphysics. The starting point of Secr~tan is his contrast of the domain of the conscience (wherein we find being) with the domain of external experience (phenomena). "All our ideas of being come from the fact that [when we affirm something to be] we mean that this something [which is] is analogous to that which we think of when we say 'I am' " (Philosophie de... (shrink)

From Hegel to Engels, Sartre and Ruyer (Ruyer, 1933), to name only a few, materialism is viewed as a necropolis, or the metaphysics befitting such an abode; many speak of matter’s crudeness, bruteness, coldness or stupidity. Science or scientism, on this view, reduces the living world to ‘dead matter’, ‘brutish’, ‘mechanical, lifeless matter’, thereby also stripping it of its freedom (Crocker, 1959). Materialism is often wrongly presented as ‘mechanistic materialism’ – with ‘Death of Nature’ echoes of de-humanization and hostility to (...) the Scientific Revolution (which knew nothing of materialism!), also a powerful Christian theme in Cudworth, Clarke and beyond (Overhoff, 2000). Here I challenge this view, building on some aspects of Israel’s Radical Enlightenment concept (Israel, 2001), which has been controversial but for my purposes is a useful claim about the dissemination of a home-grown Spinozism, sometimes reformulated as an ontology of the life sciences, an aspect Israel does not address (compare Secrétan et al., eds., 2007; Citton, 2006). First, I examine some ‘moments’ of radical Enlightenment materialism such as La Mettrie and Diderot (including his Encyclopédie entry “Spinosiste”), but also anonymous, clandestine texts such as L’Âme Matérielle, to emphasize their distinctive focus on the specific existence of organic beings. Second, I show how this ‘embodied’, non-mechanistic character of Enlightenment ‘vital materialism’ makes it different from other episodes, and perhaps more of an ethics than is usually thought (also via the figure of the materialist as ‘laughing philosopher’). Third, I reflect on what this implies for our image of the Enlightenment – no longer a Frankfurt School and/or Foucaldian vision of ‘discipline’, regimentation and order (as in Mayr, 1986) – but ‘vital’, without, conversely, being a kind of holist vitalism “at odds with the universalizing discourse of Encyclopedist materialism, with its insistence on the uniformity of nature and the universality of physical laws” (Williams, 2003): vital materialism is still materialism. Its ethics tends towards hedonism, but its most radical proponents (Diderot, La Mettrie and later Sade) disagree as to what this means. (shrink)

Excerpt from L'Énigme du Monde Et Sa Solution Selon Charles Secrétan Mème qui n'ont vu que son portrait, en gardent l'impression. Il était grand par la taille, par la vigueur, par l'activité corporelle. Il savait faire honneur à un bon repas et déguster les vins exquis du canton de Vaud il était fin gourmet, en mème temps que beau mangeur. N'allez pas croire cependant qu'il bornât son horizon aux plaisirs de la table. Il fut toute sa vie un (...) mar cheur intrépide, un admirateur passionné de la nature. Il avait soixante-dix-sept ans quand j'eus le privilège de lui servir de guide dans une course de montagne à douze cents mètres d'altitude. Il marchait avec une tranquille assu rance et semblait se baigner dans l'atmosphère des hauteurs. Il a raconté lui-mème quelques unes de ses plus belles promenades dans un petit livre intitulé Paysages Vaudois. About the Publisher Forgotten Books publishes hundreds of thousands of rare and classic books. Find more at www.forgottenbooks.com This book is a reproduction of an important historical work. Forgotten Books uses state-of-the-art technology to digitally reconstruct the work, preserving the original format whilst repairing imperfections present in the aged copy. In rare cases, an imperfection in the original, such as a blemish or missing page, may be replicated in our edition. We do, however, repair the vast majority of imperfections successfully; any imperfections that remain are intentionally left to preserve the state of such historical works. (shrink)

The balance between births and deaths in an age-structured population is strongly influenced by the spatial distribution of sub-populations. Our aim was to describe the demographic process of a fish population in an hierarchical dendritic river network, by taking into account the possible movements of individuals. We tried also to quantify the effect of river network changes (damming or channelling) on the global fish population dynamics. The Salmo trutta life pattern was taken as an example for.We proposed a model which (...) includes the demographic and the migration processes, considering migration fast compared to demography. The population was divided into three age-classes and subdivided into fifteen spatial patches, thus having 45 state variables. Both processes were described by means of constant transfer coefficients, so we were dealing with a linear system of difference equations. The discrete case of the variable aggregation method allowed the study of the system through the dominant elements of a much simpler linear system with only three global variables: the total number of individuals in each age-class. (shrink)

Charles Peirce’s Illustrations of the Logic of Science is an early work in the philosophy of science and the official birthplace of pragmatism. It contains Peirce’s two most influential papers: “The Fixation of Belief” and “How to Make Our Ideas Clear,” as well as discussions on the theory of probability, the ground of induction, the relation between science and religion, and the logic of abduction. Unsatisfied with the result and driven by a constant, almost feverish urge to improve his (...) work, Peirce spent considerable time and effort revising these papers. After the turn of the century these efforts gained significant momentum when Peirce sought to establish his role in the development of pragmatism while distancing himself from the more popular versions that had become current. The present edition brings together the original series as it appeared in Popular Science Monthly and a selection of Peirce’s later revisions, many of which remained hidden in the mass of messy manuscripts that were left behind after his death in 1914. (shrink)

Neste artigo, pretendemos abordar os elementos educacionais da Grécia antiga, fundamentais tanto para a formação e o desenvolvimento da cultura ocidental como para a constituição da paideia cristã da antiguidade. Destacamos como a idealização do épos deu lugar à formação do cidadão a partir do ideal de uma areté política que, no período helenístico, tendo seu apogeu na pólis grega, vai ser alternado por outros valores mais ligados à individualidade. Nesse sentido, consideramos que a paideia grega, em seus diferentes momentos, (...) vai ser elemento chave para a construção de uma paideia cristã. Esta, por sua vez além de sintetizar elementos universalistas do pensamento grego, se nutre de um tempo oportuno, de um kairós para expandir a mensagem cristã oriunda das promessas da religião judaica de um messiah para a universalidade dos homens, cuja expressão vai ser fundamental para a construção dos valores da sociedade ocidental. (shrink)

O ensaio teórico-reflexivo tem como objeto de discussão uma reflexão sobre a relação entre a alfabetização de jovens e adultos e o sentido da educação emancipatória a partir dos postulados de Paulo Freire, educador brasileiro que trouxe uma nova visão de educação, caracterizada como revolucionária. Uma análise das políticas públicas de EJA, com destaque para a alfabetização de adultos na década de 1990 até os dias atuais, é apresentada com o objetivo de compreender como a descontinuidade e fragilidade de tais (...) políticas têm sido um entrave para o desenvolvimento de projetos educativos de escolarização inicial e continuada, cúmplices do compromisso da formação e emancipação dos sujeitos. Destaca-se no texto o significado de emancipação em Freire como humanização do oprimido e superação dos seus condicionamentos históricos. Apresenta a educação de jovens e adultos pautada no diálogo e problematização como um ato político, agente de conscientização e potencializadora da emancipação do ser. (shrink)

De la liaison de Charles VII et Agnès Sorel naissent quatre filles, dont trois atteignent l’âge adulte. L’une d’elles, Marie, épouse Olivier de Coëtivy, conseiller de Charles VII. Le couple et trois de leurs enfants ont laissé de nombreux manuscrits richement enluminés, témoins de leur bibliophilie mais aussi du regard porté sur la bâtardise de Marie de Valois par chaque membre de la famille. On découvre à travers les images de ces livres que l’identité bâtarde, dans les (...) milieux de la haute aristocratie et de la royauté, est davantage un honneur qu’un stigmate, comme cela a déjà été démontré, mais plus encore : elle peut faire l’objet d’une commémoration et d’une célébration au-delà de la génération bâtarde, comme c’est le cas dans la Légende dorée de Catherine de Coëtivy et de son mari, dont il sera amplement question. Cet article propose de prolonger la réflexion sur la bâtardise aristocratique selon deux perspectives peu traitées : celle du genre, à travers un exemple de bâtardise féminine et les dynamiques conjugales, et celle de la « mémoire bâtarde » aux générations ultérieures. (shrink)

Montesquieu's The Spirit of Laws is an enduring classic of social and political theory deserving a fresh reading every generation. The modern reader, however, is likely to find a work that ran to over a thousand pages in its two-volume first edition a bit overwhelming. Presented here, therefore, is the first English-language compendium of The Spirit of Laws, together with the first English translation of the posthumously published treatise containing the physiological theory underlying Montesquieu's theory of climate.

"De Charles S. Peirce, logicien et philosophe américain (1839-1914), on sait généralement qu'il a élaboré une théorie du signe, voire qu'il est le fondateur du pragmatisme. Ce que l'on sait moins, c'est qu'il est le premier à avoir développé une conception de l'information dans le cadre de ses recherches sur la philosophie de la science. Ce livre est l'étude des fondements logiques et sémiotiques de cette conception. Il se concentre sur les années 1865-1867, durant lesquelles Peirce définit les parties (...) principales de son système philosophique et montre que la notion d'information est un élément essentiel de ce système. La question que pose Peirce est de savoir comment et dans quelle mesure les représentations sont capables d'augmenter la quantité de ce qu'elles représentent. Il découvre qu'elles peuvent le faire de deux manières, selon qu'elles participent de l'un ou l'autre des deux types d'inférences probables que sont l'induction et l'abduction. L'information est la mesure de cette croissance de la connaissance au coeur des représentations. La notion d'information s'inscrit dans le type de réalisme qui définit la première période de la philosophie de Peirce. Elle est aussi un élément précurseur de ce qu'il appellera plus tard sa "logique du vague"."--Page 4 of cover. (shrink)

The proposal of this article is to present and discuss the methodology applied in the frame of a socio-anthropological research held in Bolivia and Peru on child development and growth. The objectives of the investigation were to study the mother?s perceptions (and those of other related caretakers..

The Writings of Charles De Koninck, Volume 1, introduces a projected three-volume series that presents the first English edition of the collected works of the Catholic Thomist philosopher Charles De Koninck. Ralph McInerny is the project editor and has prepared the excellent translations. The first volume contains writings ranging from De Koninck's 1934 dissertation at the University of Louvain on the philosophy of Sir Arthur Eddington, to two remarkable early essays on indeterminism and the unpublished book "The Cosmos." (...) The short essay "Are the Experimental Sciences Distinct from the Philosophy of Nature?" is also included and demonstrates for the first time De Koninck's distinctive view on the relation between philosophy of nature and the experimental sciences. A comprehensive introductory essay by Leslie Armour outlines the structure and themes of De Koninck's philosophy. The volume begins with a biographical essay by De Koninck's son, Thomas. "Charles De Koninck, perhaps because of his untimely death, is not as well known to English-speaking readers as Etienne Gilson and Jacques Maritain, but his work belongs to that same world-class scholarship as his notable contemporaries. It is almost an understatement to say that his contribution to the philosophy of science remains timely. Readers are fortunate that his former student, Ralph McInerny, has seen fit to collect and to translate, where necessary, some of De Koninck's most important work for this volume." --Jude P. Dougherty, The Catholic University of America "Ralph McInerny is doing us the incalculable good of making available to a general public the writings of Charles De Koninck. This volume, the first of many to come, begins a chronological presentation of the books, articles, essays, and addresses of one of the strongest and most penetrating thinkers of the last century, who was at once an extraordinary philosopher and theologian, with the profound and simple faith of the proverbial peasant. May we continue now to learn from the great De Koninck, and include in our prayers the intentions of his gracious disciple, who is so felicitously discharging the office of piety to a revered and unforgettable master." --Ronald P. Mc Arthur, President Emeritus, Thomas Aquinas College. (shrink)

De profonds déséquilibres environnementaux et sociaux caractérisent en négatif le bilan de la culture humaine en ce début de XXe siècle. La transformation radicale des sociétés sur des bases de justice sociale apparaît comme la condition pour que le genre humain poursuive son processus de libération et soit enfin fidèle à la démarche éthique qui le singularise. Pourtant, les révolutions du siècle passé, qui ont tenté de construire un nouveau monde, ont toutes échoué. La plupart d'entre elles ont étouffé la (...) liberté et bafoué les principes humanistes. De fait, les adversaires de l'exploitation de l'homme par l'homme sont actuellement affaiblis et désorientés. Ils ont bien du mal à s'opposer aux offensives des classes dirigeantes qui partout dans le monde appliquent des politiques libérales antisociales. Comment galvaniser les résistances? Est-il possible de refonder l'idéal émancipateur? Quelles devraient être les caractéristiques essentielles d'une société véritablement émancipatrice? Quel cheminement peut nous y conduire? (shrink)

La collection « Dictionnaire...» a l'ambition de présenter, dans des ouvrages de 200 pages environ, l'essentiel des termes (le mot est volontairement vague) dans lesquels s'exprime chaque philosophe.

Après l’histoire de la folie et celle de la prison, Foucault a abordé l’histoire de la sexualité. Nous retracerons d’abord les trois moments de cette histoire: l’antiquité gréco-romaine, le christianisme et la société bourgeoise. Nous insisterons ensuite sur ce qui caractérise, en Occident, notre époque, à savoir l’extension de « l’aveu » dans tous les domaines investis par les sciences humaines. Ce qui nous amènera à mettre l’accent sur l’enjeu philosophique d’une telle histoire, à savoir la question de la vérité.

Voltaire historien de la philosophie. De l'Antiquité au Grand Siècle Renan Laruc, Porphyre de Tyr, héros voltairien; Marc-André Nadeau, Défense et critique de Montaigne dans les Lettres philosophiques; Véronique Le Ru, Voltaire, lecteur de Descartes; Gerhardt Stenger, Un philosophe peut en cacher un autre: Malebranche et Spinoza dans Tout en Dieu; Lorenzo Bianchi, Voltaire lecteur et critique de Bayle; Miguel Benitez, Locke, Voltaire et la matière pensante; Claire Fauvergue, Voltaire et l'idée d'automate. Voltaire et la philosophie des Lumières Debora Sicco, (...) Voltaire champion de Chastellux contre Montesquieu ; Marie Leca-Tsiomis, Voltaire, philosophe selon Diderot; Sévérine Denieul, Casanova lecteur et critique de Voltaire; Main Sandrier, Lectures athées de Voltaire: la duplicité du philosophe; Rodrigo Brandào, Job, Voltaire et Kant ou deux perspectives sur la souffrance et le mal; Linda Gil, Condorcet éditeur de Voltaire: une lecture dialogique dans les OEuvres complètes. Voltaire philosophe: histoire, morale et politique Jean Goldzink, Déisme et récits voltairiens ; Maria das Graças de Souza, Voltaire philosophe de l'histoire: autour de l'Essai sur les moeurs; Vladimir de Oliva Mota, Les fondements transcendants de la morale chez Voltaire; Maria Laura Lanzillo, La philosophie politique de Voltaire. De sa théorie de l'État à sa conception de la tolérance; Baldine Saint Girons, Voltaire et l'autocritique de la philosophie. La postérité philosophique de Voltaire Alain Sager, Voltaire à la lumière du concept d'ironie chez Kierkegaard; Guillaume Métayer, Voltaire philosophe, via Nietzsche? La préhistoire de l'épistémè; Danilo Bilate, Les "nouvelles Lumières" et l'attitude voltairienne chez Nietzsche; Abderhaman Messaoudi, Voltaire philosophe. Les enjeux d'une réévaluation."--Page 4 of cover. (shrink)

Andrea Mansker révise ici la célèbre analyse de Robert Nye : le duel – institution résolument masculine s’il en est – a été la représentation ultime de l’honneur masculin bourgeois. Cet honneur, foncièrement hétérosexuel, était, selon Nye, incarné (embodied) dans le bourgeois, déjà construit selon un modèle biomédical des sexes ; l’honneur féminin bourgeois, également embodied et foncièrement hétérosexuel en opposition à l’honneur masculin, s’est constitué par « la chasteté et le mariage légi...

Il s’agit d’affronter la « figure » d’Ettore Majorana et d’en proposer un premier « profil philosophique ». La question des « fictions » apparaît alors centrale chez Majorana. On établit ensuite la dimension surrationaliste et européenne de ses affinités électives avec Giovanni Gentile Junior. Les deux oeuvres sont restituées dans le cadre d’un mathématisme constructif et inductif (Gaston Bachelard, puis Robert Blanché) qui s’oppose au géométrisme classique (Emile Meyerson) et au pythagorisme spiritualiste (Arthur Eddington).

Cet article résume plusieurs projets concernant l'usage par des étudiants de ressources informatiques universitaires. Dans chaque cas, nous observons une discordance entre les attentes affichées par les décideurs des politiques éducatives et celles des architectes de la technologie. L'ensemble des cas discutés suggère que bien plus de recherches est nécessaire pour comprendre les cultures établies de l'apprentissage si les nouvelles technologies doivent y être introduites de façon productive dans un milieu réactif.This paper summarises a number of projects all concerned with (...) university students' use of institutional ICT facilities. In each case I note a discrepancy between the stated expectations of educational policy makers and technology architects. Together the cases discussed suggest that much more research is needed to understand established cultures of learning if new technologies are to be interfaced productively with a resilient status quo. (shrink)

This paper examines the ethical and legal duties of confidentiality owed by the nurse, with special reference to obligation to the employer. The main focus is on exploring the parameters of that duty and determining circumstances in which it might be ethically and legally justifiable to disclose confidential information. It is submitted that the obli gation to preserve the confidence of the patient or employer is relative rather than abso lute. In exceptional cases, disclosure is permissible in order to prevent (...) harm to others or to promote a greater public good. A number of suggestions for reform are also made, with a view to reinforcing nurses' ethical and legal rights to exercise discretion to dis close confidential information in appropriate cases in order to protect themselves from victimization by employers. Cet article passe à l'examen les devoirs éthiques et légales de la confidence que les infirmiers/ères doivent obligatoirement à leur employeur. Le point de mire est l'exploration des donnés de cette obligation, et la détermination des circonstances dans lesquelles il est légitime, éthiquement et légalement, d'exposer de l'information confidentielle. Il est suggéré que l'obligation de préserver la confiance du malade ou de l'employeur est relative plutôt qu'absolu. Dans des cas exceptionels pourtant, la révélation d'information est permisible pour prévenir le mal des autres ou pour promouvoir un plus grand bien public. Quelques suggestions pour réformes sont proposées en vue du renforcement des droits éthiques et légales des infirmiers/ères d'exercer la discretion en ce qui concerne la révélation d'information dans des cas bien choisis, et de les protéger des représailles de l'employeur. Dieser Artikel prüft die ethischen und legalen Pflichten des Vertrauens, die das Pflegepersonal dem Arbeitsgeber schuldet. Das Zentrum des Arguments ist eine Untersuchung dieser Pflichten, und eine Festsetzung der Umstände, in welchen es ethisch und rechtlich möglich ist, Information bekannt zu machen. Es ist anerkennt, dass die Pflicht des Vertrauens des Patienten oder des Arbeitsgebers zu behalten, eher relativ als absolut ist. In aussergewöhnlichen Fällen jedoch ist die Bekanntgabe von Information erlaubt, um das Böse zu verhindern und das Gute aller zu fördern. Eine Anzahl von Vorschlägen für Reformen sind gemacht, mit der Absicht, die ethischen und legalen Rechte des Pflegepersonals, in gegebenen Fällen Information bekannt zu machen, zu verstärken, und es von ungerechter Behandlung eines Arbeitsgebers zu schützen. (shrink)

Dans cet article, nous nous efforçons de présenter synthétiquement la philosophie d’Andre Comte-Sponville. Pour ce faire, nous nous intéressons d’abord à la distinction capitale qu’il effectue entre valeur et vérité. Refusant à la fois le dogmatisme (oú la vérité vaut) et la sophistique (oú la valeur est vraie), André Comte-Sponville prône une position cynique pour laquelle la vérité est sans valeur et les valeurs sont sans vérité. Ensuite, délaissant la théorie pour la pratique, nous évoquons une autre distinction, tout aussi (...) importante, qui oppose l’ethique et la morale. L’etude conjointe de ces deux distinctions, théorique et pratique, nous permet alors de montrer que la philosophie de Comte-Sponville ne saurait se réduire à ce que Luc Ferry appelle de la “moraline”, à savoir du moralisme médiatique, mais qu’elle exige au contraire une vertu exigeante et austère, loin des bons sentiments dont on l’affuble trop souvent en France.This article will seek to present synthetically Andre Comte-Sponville’s philosophy. It will first consider the capital distinction he establishes between value and truth. Refusing both dogmatism (where truth is valued) and sophistry (where value is truth), Andre Comte-Sponville advocates a cynical position for which truth has no value, and values are without truth. Then, moving from theory to practice, we will bring up another distinction - just as important - which opposes ethics and morals. The combined study of both these distinctions, theoretical and practical, allows to show that Comte-Sponville’s philosophy cannot be reduced to what Luc Ferry calls “moraline”, that is, media moralism, but that it requires on the contrary a demanding and austere virtue, far from the good sentiments that are too often attributed to it in France. (shrink)